C and C++ are two of the most important
programming languages today. Many professional
programmers are proficient in C and C++. These two
programming languages are the foundation upon which modern programming
is built.
The C language was invented by Dennis
Ritchie in the 1970s. It is a middle-level language and combines the
control structures of a high-level language with the ability to
manipulate bits, bytes, and pointers, or addresses. C provides
a programmer virtually complete control over the computer.
This
web site, the C / C++ Zone, is not designed as a tutorial, but rather
as a C and C++ programming manual with usable code examples.
It is under constant development.
C / C++ Zone
Algorithms
The generic algorithms fall into four
categories, as listed here:
Non-modifying sequence algorithms: Do not
modify the containers on which they work.
Such algorithms include:
adjacent_find, find, find_end, find_first, count, mismatch, equal,
for_each, search.
Mutating sequence
algorithms: Modify the containers on which they work. Such
algorithms include:
copy_backward, fill, generate, partition, random_shuffle, remove,
replace, rotate, reverse, swap, swap_ranges, transform,
unique.
Sorting algorithms:
Sort the contents of containers in various ways. These algorithms
include:
sort, stable_sort, partial_sort, partial_sort_copy,
as well as a number of related functions, including:
nth_element, binary_search, lower_bound,
upper_bound, equal_range, merge, includes, push_heap, pop_heap,
make_heap, sort_heap, set_union, set_intersection, set_difference,
set_symmetric_difference, min, min_element, max, max_element,
lexicographical_compare, next_permutation, prev_permutation.
Numeric algorithms:
Perform numeric calculations on the contents of containers. These
category includes:
accumulate, adjacent_difference,
inner_product, iota, partial_sum,
power.
Iterators
Iterators
are pointer-like objects that allow programs to
step through the elements of a container sequentially without exposing
the underlying representation. Iterators can be advanced from one
element to the next by incrementing them. Some iterators can also be
decremented or allow arbitrary jumps from one element to another, as we
will see later. When they are dereferenced, iterators yield a reference
to a container element. In addition, they can be compared to each other
for equality or inequality.
Iterators interact seamlessly with built-in C++
types. In
particular, native C++ pointers are treated as iterators to C++ arrays.
Naturally, all containers in the Standard C++ Library define an
iterator type, i.e., a nested type iterator that represent their
respective pointer-like type.
Iterator Categories Iterators fall into categories.
This is because different algorithms impose different requirements on
an iterator they use. For example, the find() algorithms needs an
iterator that can be advanced by incrementing it, whereas the reverse()
algorithm needs an iterator that can be decremented as well, etc.
Ultimately, there are five categories of iterators in STL and Standard
C++ Library:
- input iterators
- output
iterators
- forward iterators
- bidirectional
iterators
- random access iterators
An iterator category is an abstraction. It represents a set of
requirements to an iterator.
STL
The Standard Template Library
is a new C++ library that provides a set of easily composable C++
container classes and generic algorithms (template functions).
The container classes include vectors, lists,
deques, sets, multisets, maps, multimaps, stacks, queues and priority
queues.
The generic algorithms include a
broad range of fundamental algorithms for the most common kinds of data
manipulations, such as searching, sorting, merging, copying,
and transforming.
At its July 1994 meeting, the ANSI/ISO C++
Standards Committee voted to adopt STL
as part of the standard C++ library. The STL proposal to the committee
by Alex Stepanov and Meng Lee of Hewlett-Packard Labs was based on
research on generic programming and generic software libraries that
Stepanov, Lee, and David Musser have been working on for several years,
in Scheme, Ada, and C++.
String
C++ supports characters strings two ways. The first is as a
null-terminated character array. This is sometimes referred to as a C
string. The second way is as a class object of type basic_string. The
basic_string class is essentially a container. this means that
iterators and the STL algorithms can operate on string.
However, string has
additional capabilities.
C++
string recognizes operators: <,
<=, >, >=,
==, !=,
=, +=
.
When you use template functions, or classes you
don't need to write addition function with strcpy, ctrcmp of ctrcat...
In this case C++ string
works like any of built-in data type.
String
functions.C++ string,
like any of container classes, has its own public functions, that add a
lot of flexibility for manipulation of C++ string
data type.
Overflowing.
You don't need to think about overflowing or null-terminating
character. C++ string
allows use sequence of characters as long as allows ability of your OS.
More C Programming
Examples and Help
Stdio Functions
String
Functions
Time Functions
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